Graduate Studies Reports Access
Graduate Course Proposal Form Submission Detail - PHC6254
Tracking Number - 5156
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Current Status:
Approved by SCNS - 2015-12-01
Campus: Tampa
Submission Type: New
Course Change Information (for course changes only):
Comments: PH: Global Dis Mgmt and Hum Relief. GC approved 10/12/15. To USF 10/12/15; to SCNS 10/28/15. Approved effective 12/1/15. nmbr 6234 apprpoved as 6254
Detail Information
- Date & Time Submitted: 2015-01-06
- Department: Global Health
- College: PH
- Budget Account Number: 640800
- Contact Person: wayne w westhoff
- Phone: 8139746621
- Email: wwesthof@health.usf.edu
- Prefix: PHC
- Number: 6254
- Full Title: Public Health Implications and Concerns in Homeland Security
- Credit Hours: 3
- Section Type: C -
Class Lecture (Primarily)
- Is the course title variable?: N
- Is a permit required for registration?: N
- Are the credit hours variable?: N
- Is this course repeatable?: N
- If repeatable, how many times?: 0
- Abbreviated Title (30 characters maximum): public health homeland securit
- Course Online?: O -
Online (100% online)
- Percentage Online: 0
- Grading Option:
-
- Prerequisites: none
- Corequisites: none
- Course Description: Identifies the implications public health presents within the context of homeland security related to public health strategy, interagency capabilities, and the resources that are aimed at preventing and containing risks from tragic events.
- Please briefly explain why it is necessary and/or desirable to add this course: Needed for program/concentration/certificate change
- What is the need or demand for this course? (Indicate if this course is part of a required sequence in the major.) What other programs would this course service? This course is one of five additional courses added to the Global Disaster Management and Humanitarian Relief concentration for an MPH degree. It will also add to the Graduate Certificate in Homeland Security which has not been taught for about five years due to a lack of courses. Students have requested homeland security courses to complement the disaster management and humanitarian relief courses. This course will help fill that void.
- Has this course been offered as Selected Topics/Experimental Topics course? If yes, how many times? No
- What qualifications for training and/or experience are necessary to teach this course? (List minimum qualifications for the instructor.) A doctorate degree in public health, public administration, education or a related field plus training or experience of no less than one year in disaster management or homeland security either at the public, private or military arena.
- Objectives: 1. Analyze the pervasive threat created by Terrorism and WMD within the context of Public Health;
2. Appraise the nature and history of terrorism and impact on Public Health Systems;
3. Formulate and evaluate the current level of Public Health Systems within the National Preparedness Initiative;
4. Introduce graduate students to the basic concepts of terrorism, bioterrorism and agro-terrorism.
5. Interpret the current level of National Readiness to deal with terrorism, bioterrorism and agro-terrorism;
6. Analyze current Public Health Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment Systems;
7. Synthesize the Public Health’s role in the National Response Framework;
8. Interpret Public Health Preparedness Capabilities: National Standards for State and Local Planning;
9. Summarize the importance of reaching the public through Joint Information System (JIS) & Joint Information Centers (JICs);
10. Identify the importance and function of Public Health Fusion Centers;
11. Recognize and discuss the Medical Surge Impact on Communities;
12. Recognize and discuss the critical importance of Veterinarian Issues within the context of Public Health;
13. Analyze and appraise the implications of disease surveillance and preparedness for bioterrorism and pandemics on Homeland Security;
14. Identify and discuss the impact of social media and public health within the context of Homeland Security;
15. Formulate and explain the current status of public health and emergency response under the Homeland Security umbrella;
16. Assess the future of Public Health within the context of Homeland Security.
- Learning Outcomes: 1. Demonstrate critical thinking as it applies to public health concerns as it relates to homeland security.
2. Solve public health problems using critical and creative thinking and scientific reasoning
3. Collaborate with peers to create strategies that can be used to fulfill the public health mission during incidents of national significance or terrorist attacks.
4. Use both qualitative and quantitative analytical skills to evaluate public health effectiveness based on data.
5. Formulate, apply and evaluate strategies to effectively deal with public health concerns and actions necessary in the aftermath of a terror attack.
- Major Topics: 1. Impact of Public Health in Homeland Security
2. Public Health Departments: A Product of Federalism
3. Public Health Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment
4. The National Response Framework: Public Health’s Role
5. Public Health Preparedness Capabilities: National Standards for State and Local Planning
6. Reaching the Public: Joint Information System (JIS) & Joint Information Centers (JICs)
7. Medical Surge: Impact on Communities
8. Public Health Fusion Centers
9. Agro-Terrorism and Impact on Public Health
10. Protecting Animal and Public Health: Homeland Security and the Federal Veterinarian Workforce
11. Social Media and Public Health: Homeland Security Concerns
12. Disease surveillance and preparedness for bioterrorism, pandemics, and WMD
13. The Impact of Cyberterrorism on Public Health
14. The Future of Public Health: A Homeland Security Context
- Textbooks: No textbook. All readings are open-source and government documents, reports, and studies.
- Course Readings, Online Resources, and Other Purchases: 112TH Congress (2011). HR1136: To amend chapter 35 of title 44, United States Code, to create the National Office for Cyberspace, to revise requirements relating to Federal information security, and for other purposes. www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS.../pdf/BILLS-112hr1136ih.pdf
Applebaum, R (2004).. “Terrorism and the Nation’s Food Supply,” Journal of Food Science. Vol. 69, No. 2, March 2004, [http://bookstore.myift.org/orders/iftstore/ift-9984-
2238-5934-8765-house/21259jfsv69n2pCRH0047-0054ms20031209.pdf].
Billo,C., and Welton Chang (2004). Cyber Warfare: An Analysis of the Means and Motivations of Selected Nation States. Trustees of Dartmouth College. http://www.ists.dartmouth.edu/docs/cyberwarfare.pdf
Boulos, M. N. K., Sanfilippo, A. P., Corley, C. D., & Wheeler, S. (2010). Social Web mining and exploitation for serious applications: Technosocial Predictive Analytics and related technologies for public health, environmental and national security surveillance. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 100(1): 16-23.
Casagrande, R. “Biological Warfare Targeted at Livestock,” BioScience, Vol. 52, No.
7 (July 2002), pp. 577-581, http://www.bioone.org/pdfserv/i0006-3568-052-07-0577.pdf
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Bioterrorism Agents and Diseases, http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). Public Health Preparedness Capabilities: National Standards for State and Local Planning. http://www.cdc.gov/phpr/capabilities/Capabilities_March_2011.pdf
Centers for Disease Control. (2011). The Health Communicator’s Social Media Toolkit. Electronic Media Branch, Division of News and Electronic Media, Office of the Associate Director of Communication. http://www.cdc.gov/socialmedia/Tools/guidelines/pdf/SocialMediaToolkit_BM.pdf
Center for Strategic & International Studies (2010). From Conflict to Pandemics: Three Papers from the CSIS Global Health and Security Working Group. http://csis.org/files/publication/100506_Bonventre_FromConflictToPandemics_Web.pdf
Chalk, Peter (2004), “Hitting America’ Soft Underbelly: The Potential Threat of Deliberate Biological Attacks Against U.S. Agricultural and Food Industry”, RAND
Chalk, Peter (2001). “Terrorism, Infrastructure Protection, and the U.S. Food and Agriculture Sector.” Testimony for the Senate Governmental Affairs
Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, Restructuring, and the District of Columbia hearing on “Federal Food Safety and Security,” [http://www.rand.org/publications/CT/CT184/CT184.pdf].
Cordesman ,Anthony H. (2000). “Homeland Defense: Information Warfare,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, December p. 186
Currie, Danya (2010). Crisis Communications and Social Media: Expert Round Table on Social Media and Risk Communication during Times of Crisis: Strategic Challenges and Opportunities. http://www.boozallen.com/media/file/Risk_Communications_Times_of_Crisis.pdf
Department of Homeland Security (2003). Presidential policy directive/PPD-8: National Preparedness. http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/laws/gc_1215444247124.shtm
Diamond, D. S., Pastor, L. H., & McIntosh, R. G. (2004). Chemical, Biological, Radiological, or Nuclear Terrorism. Psychiatric Annals, 34(9), 1–6.
Feller, I., Carson, J., Houck, M., Kiriakou, H., Kruglanski, H., Schoch, M., and Debra Stewart (2004). Framework for Higher Education in Homeland Security. Committee on Educational Paradigms for Homeland Security. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC.
FEMA NIMS Center http://www.fema.gov/emergency/nims/
Ferro, C., Henry, D., & Thomas MacLellan (2011). A Governor’s Guide to Homeland Security. National Governors Association
Florida Domestic Security Oversight Council (2010). Joint Information Center (JIC) and Joint Information System (JIS) Guidelines. http://www.ffca.org/files/public/JIC-JISFINALDSOC.pdf
Government Accountability Office (2003). . Bioterrorism: A Threat to Agriculture and the Food Supply, GAO-04-259T
Gursky, E. (2005). Epidemic Proportions: Building National Public Health Capabilities to Meet National Security Threats. Subcommittee on Bioterrorism and Public Health Preparedness, Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. http://www.homelandsecurity.org/journal/Epidemic_Proportions_2.pdf
Homeland Security Act of 2002. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/deptofhomeland/bill/
HSPD-8. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/12/20031217-6.html
HSPD-5. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030228-9.html
HSPD-7. Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/12/20031217-5.html
Joint Commission (2009). Emergency Management Summit Washington DC 4-5 March 2009. www.jointcommission.org/assets/1/18/emergency_preparedness.pdf
Jones, Mary J. (2008). A 21st Century National Public Health System. Master’s Thesis from the Naval Post Graduate School. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA488731
Katen, Karen (2004). Best Practices for Government to Enhance the Security of National Security Critical Infrastructure. National Infrastructure Advisory Council. http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/niac/NIAC_BestPracticesSecurityInfrastructures_0404.pdf
Keim , M., Reddick, R., and Miguel Cruz (2007). The CDC/ATSDR Public Health Vulnerability Mapping System: Using a Geographic Information System for Depicting Human Vulnerability to Environmental Emergencies. NCEH Office of Terrorism Preparedness and Emergency Response.
Khan AS . (2011). Public Health Preparedness and Response in the USA Since 9/11: A National Health Security Imperative. Centers for Disease Control Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response. Lancet 2011; 378: 953–56
Koenig, Kristi L. (2003). Homeland Security and Public Health: Role of the Department of Veterans Affairs, the US Department of Homeland Security, and Implications for the Public Health Community. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. Vol.18,No. 4 (p 327-333)
Leadership Roundtable on the Hot Healthcare Emergency Management Issues for Providers 2009
Lesperance, AM., Godinez, MA., and JR Olson (2010). Social Networking for Emergency Management and Public Safety. National Technical Information Service. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/pnl/social_networking.pdf
Marklund, L., Graham, A., Morton, P., Hurst, C., Motola, I., Robinson, D., Kelley, V., Elenberg, K., Russler, M., Boehm, D., Higgins, D., McAndrew, P., Williamson, H., Atwood, R., Huebner, K., Brotons, A., Miller, T., Rimpel, L., Harris, L., Santiago, M., and LeRoy Cantrell (2010). Collaboration between Civilian and Military Healthcare Professionals: A Better Way for Planning, Preparing, and Responding to All Hazard Domestic Events. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. Vol. 25, No. 5 (p399-412)
Masse, T., O’Neil, S., and John Rollins (2007). Fusion Centers: Issues and Options for Congress. Congressional Research Service. Washington, DC
Maunder, R. G., Lancee, W. J., Balderson, K. E., Bennett, J. P., Borgundvaag, B., Evans, S., et al. (2006). Long-term Psychological and Occupational Effects of Providing Hospital Healthcare during SARS Outbreak. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(12), 1924–1932.
McNab, C. (2009). What social media offers to health professionals and citizens. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 87(8): 566-566
Meredith, L., Eisenman D., Tanielian T., Taylor, S., & Ricardo Basurto (2007). Preparing Hospitals and Clinics for the Psychological Consequences of a Terrorist Incident or Other Public Health Emergency. RAND Corp
Meyerson, L., and J. Reaser. (2002). “Biosecurity: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Approach,” BioScience, Vol. 52, No. 7 , pp. 593-600, http://www.bioone.org/pdfserv/i0006-3568-052-07-0593.pdf
Minnesota Office Department of Public Health (2011). Public Health Emergency Preparedness Work Group Final Report. Office of Emergency Preparedness
Monahan, T., and Neal Palmer (2009). The Emerging Politics of DHS Fusion Centers. Security Dialogue vol. 40, no. 6, December 2009. http://torinmonahan.com/papers/FC-SD.pdf
Monke, Jim (2005). Agroterrorism: Threats and Preparedness. CRS Report for Congress. Available at http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/44944.pdf
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (2004). The 9/11 commission report. 2004. http://www.9-11commission. gov/report/911Report.pdf
Centers for Disease Control (2009). Public Health Preparedness: Strengthening CDC’s Emergency Response.. http://www.cdc.gov/phpr/publications/2009/phprep_report_2009.pdf
National Disaster Medical System: Available at http://ndms.dhhs.gov/
National Institute of Mental Health. (2002). Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidence-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors of Mass Violence. A Workshop to Reach Consensus on Best Practices, Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
National Research Council of the National Academies (2003). Countering Agricultural Bioterrorism, [http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10505.html].
U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2004). “Strengthening the Security of Our Nation’s Food Supply,” DHS Fact Sheet. http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interapp/press_release/press_release_0453.xml
Nelson C, Chan E, Chandra A, et al. Developing national standards for public health emergency preparedness with a limited evidence base. Disaster Med Public Health Prep 2010; 4: 285–90.
Okumura, T., Suzuki, K., Fukuda, A., Kohoma, A., & Takasu, N. (1998). The Tokyo Subway Sarin Attack: Disaster Management, Part 3, National and International Response. Academic Emergency Medicine, 3(2), 625–628.
Pratt, R., (2004). Invasive Threats to the American Homeland. Parameters (pp44-61). http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/parameters/Articles/04spring/pratt.pdf
Raghavan, T., (2003). In Fear of Cyberterrorism: An Analysis of the Congressional Response. Journal of Law, Technology, & Policy Vol. 2003
Schnein, R., Kumanan, W., and Jennifer Keelan (2010). Literature Review on Effectiveness of the Use of Social Media: A Report for Public Health. University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. http://www.peelregion.ca/health/resources/pdf/socialmedia.pdf
Skiendzielewski, J. (2010). Is the Medical Community Ready if Disaster or Terrorism Strikes: Closing the Gap in Medical Surge Capacity? House Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Management, Investigations, and Oversight. United States House of Representatives. http://chsdemocrats.house.gov/SiteDocuments/20100125111402-69482.PDF
Sparer , Michael (2009). Health Care Reform and American Federalism: The Next Inter-Governmental Partnership. Academy Health. http://www.statecoverage.org/files/SCI_report_federalism.pdf
Tampa Bay Catastrophic Plan (2010). Annex D: Public Information /External Affairs ESF #14. http://www.tbrpc.org/tampabaycatplan/pdf/plan_docs/AnnexD_ESF14_PublicInformation.pdf
The Heritage Foundation (2008). Health Care and Homeland Security: Crossroads of Emergency Response A Resource Guide and Report of the Health Care and Homeland Security Conference. The Heritage Foundation. Washington, DC
UCLA Center for Public Health and Disasters (2006). Hazard Risk Assessment Instrument. http://www.cphd.ucla.edu/npdfs/HRAI_Workbook.pdf
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). Public Health Preparedness Capabilities: National Standards for State and Local Planning. US Government Printing Office
U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2010). Quadrennial Homeland Security Review Report. US Government Printing Office
U.S. Department of Justice (2011). Health Security: Public Health and Medical Integration for Fusion Centers. US Government Printing Office
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (N.D). CAPABILITY 6: Information Sharing. Public Health Preparedness Capabilities: National Standards for State and Local Planning. http://www.cdc.gov/phpr/capabilities/capability6.pdf
US Department of Health and Human Services (2004). Medical Surge Capacity and Capability: A Management System for Integrating Medical and Health Resources During Large-Scale Emergencies. http://www.ncdhhs.gov/dhsr/EMS/aspr/pdf/mscc.pdf
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2007). Public Health Emergency Response: A Guide for Leaders and Responders. US Government Printing Office
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Pandemic Planning Update IV, July 2007, at www.pandemicflu.gov/plan/panflureport4.pdf
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2004 Summary at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad374.pdf
US Department of Homeland Security (2007). Basic Guidance for Public Information Officers (PIOs). National Incident Management System. www.fema.gov/library/file?type...file=basic...pdf
US Department of Homeland Security (2008). National Incident Management System (NIMS). (pp71-141). http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nims/NIMS_core.pdf
US Department of Homeland Security (2008). National Response Framework Emergency Support Function #8. http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-esf-08.pdf
U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2007). Target Capabilities List: A companion to the National Preparedness Guidelines. Medical Surge (pp439-519) http://www.fema.gov/pdf/government/training/tcl.pdf
US Department of Homeland Security (2003). The National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets. http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/Physical_Strategy.pdf
U.S. Department of Justice (2008). Baseline Capabilities for State and Major Urban Area Fusion Centers: A Supplement to the Fusion Center Guidelines. http://www.it.ojp.gov/documents/baselinecapabilitiesa.pdf
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Assistance (2006). Fusion Center Guidelines: Developing and Sharing Information and Intelligence in a New Era.
US Department of Veterans Affairs. (2003). Report to Congress on the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Bed Capacity in Support of Department of Defense (DoD) Contingency Planning.
US Federal Register (2010). . Executive Order 13546—Optimizing the Security of Biological Select Agents and Toxins in the United States. http://www.fas.org/irp/o¬docs/eo/eo-13546.pdf
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2002). “The Bioterrorism Act of 2002: Plans for Implementing the Act,” http://www.fda.gov/oc/bioterrorism/bioact.html
United States Government Accountability Office (2008). Emergency Preparedness: States Are Planning for Medical Surge, but Could Benefit from Shared Guidance for Allocating Scarce Medical Resources. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d08668.pdf
United States Government Accountability Office (2005). Influenza Pandemic: Challenges Remain in Preparedness. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05760t.pdf
United States Government Accountability Office (2007). Public Health and Hospital Emergency Preparedness Programs: Evolution of Performance Measurement Systems to Measure Progress. US Government Printing Office
US Government Printing Office (2001). Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT Act) Act of 2001. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ56/pdf/PLAW-107publ56.pdf
United States Government Accountability Office. (2009). Veterinarian Workforce: Actions Are Needed to Ensure Sufficient Capacity for Protecting Public and Animal Health. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09178.pdf
U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs (2003). “Agroterrorism: The Threat to America’s Breadbasket,” S.Hrg. 108-491, November 19, 2003, [http://a257.g. akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/15jul20041200/www.access.gpo.gov/congress/ senate/pdf/108hrg/91045.pdf].
Whitehouse (2011). International Strategy for Cyberspace. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/international_strategy_for_cyberspace.pdf
World Health Organization (1999). Study Group on Future Trends in Veterinary Public Health (Teramo, Italy). http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_907.pdf
Wurtz, R., and Michael L. Popovich (2002). Animal Disease Surveillance: A Framework for Supporting Disease Detection in Public Health. White Paper: Animal Disease Surveillance, WHP027-A March 2002. Scientific Technologies Corporation. http://www.stchome.com/media/white_papers/WHP027A.pdf
Yang, M., Yi-jun L., and Melody Kiang (N.D). Uncovering Social Media Data for Public Health Surveillance. http://fsb.cvm.msu.edu/documents/PACIS2011-215.pdf
- Student Expectations/Requirements and Grading Policy: Grade Score
A 90-100
B 80-89
C 70-79
D 60-69
F 59 and lower
- Assignments, Exams and Tests: Course Requirements:
1. Weekly discussion & activities. Discussion questions or activities will be posted regarding the unit or section topics. Activities may include individual assignments, group assignments or group discussions. These assignments will account for 25% of your final grade.
2. Six 5-page mini papers in Weeks 1, 2,5,7,9 & 11 (25%)
3. Prepare a term paper of 15 pages. The topic must be approved by the instructor by week 9. All papers must be in APA style or it will not be accepted (20%). Term paper must be uploaded to Turntin.com.
4. Prepare a presentation with your group on an aspect of public health and its relationship to the National Strategy on Homeland Security (10%). Each presentation must be the equivalent of 20 minutes long and each group member must respond to questions from the audience. More information will be provided regarding presentations using an “on-line” format.
5. Mid-term exam (10%).
6. Final exam (10%).
- Attendance Policy: Course Attendance at First Class Meeting – Policy for Graduate Students: For structured courses, 6000 and above, the College/Campus Dean will set the first-day class attendance requirement. Check with the College for specific information. This policy is not applicable to courses in the following categories: Educational Outreach, Open University (TV), FEEDS Program, Community Experiential Learning (CEL), Cooperative Education Training, and courses that do not have regularly scheduled meeting days/times (such as, directed reading/research or study, individual research, thesis, dissertation, internship, practica, etc.). Students are responsible for dropping undesired courses in these categories by the 5th day of classes to avoid fee liability and academic penalty. (See USF Regulation – Registration - 4.0101,
http://usfweb2.usf.edu/usfgc/ogc%20web/currentreg.htm)
Attendance Policy for the Observance of Religious Days by Students: In accordance with Sections 1006.53 and 1001.74(10)(g) Florida Statutes and Board of Governors Regulation 6C-6.0115, the University of South Florida (University/USF) has established the following policy regarding religious observances: (http://usfweb2.usf.edu/usfgc/gc_pp/acadaf/gc10-045.htm)
In the event of an emergency, it may be necessary for USF to suspend normal operations. During this time, USF may opt to continue delivery of instruction through methods that include but are not limited to: Blackboard, Elluminate, Skype, and email messaging and/or an alternate schedule. It’s the responsibility of the student to monitor Blackboard site for each class for course specific communication, and the main USF, College, and department websites, emails, and MoBull messages for important general information.
- Policy on Make-up Work: No make-up work without documentation of health, illness or family death. Refer to USF policy on academic integrity.
- Program This Course Supports: Global Disaster Management and Humanitarian Relief
- Course Concurrence Information: Graduate Certificate in Homeland Security
- if you have questions about any of these fields, please contact chinescobb@grad.usf.edu or joe@grad.usf.edu.